Rhetorical Devices
Abstract
Language:
Words that refer to ides, qualities, attitudes, and conditions that cannot be
perceived with the senses—for example, freedom, beauty, joy. Opposite of
concrete language.
Alliteration:
repetition of the same consonant sound beginning several words in sequence.
*Let
us go forth to lead the land we love. J. F. Kennedy, Inaugural
*Veni,
vidi, vici. Julius Caesar
Anacoluthon:
lack of grammatical sequence; a change in the grammatical construction within
the same sentence.
*Agreements
entered into when one state of facts exists -- are they to be maintained
regardless of changing conditions? J. Diefenbaker
Anadiplosis:
("doubling back") the rhetorical repetition of one or several words;
specifically, repetition of a word that ends one clause at the beginning of the
next.
*Men
in great place are thrice servants: servants of the sovereign or state; servants
of fame; and servants of business. Francis Bacon
Analogy:
A comparison between something familiar and something unfamiliar. The things
being compared are similar in some ways but not in others. Metaphor and simile
are types of analogies.
Anaphora:
the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases or
clauses.
*We
shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we
shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and
growing strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may
be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we
shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills. We
shall never surrender. Churchill.
Anastrophe:
transposition of normal word order; most often found in Latin in the case of
prepositions and the words they control. Anastrophe is a form of hyperbaton.
*The
helmsman steered; the ship moved on; yet never a breeze up blew. Coleridge, The
Rime of the Ancient Mariner
Antistrophe:
repetition of the same word or phrase at the end of successive clauses.
*In
1931, ten years ago,
Antithesis:
opposition, or contrast of ideas or words in a balanced or parallel
construction.
*Extremism
in defense of liberty is no vice, moderation in the pursuit of justice is no
virtue. Barry Goldwater
*Brutus:
Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved
*The
vases of the classical period are but the reflection of classical beauty; the
vases of the archaic period are beauty itself." Sir John Beazley
Aporia:
expression of doubt (often feigned) by which a speaker appears uncertain as to
what he should think, say, or do.
*Then
the steward said within himself, 'What shall I do?' Luke 16
Aposiopesis:
a form of ellipse by which a speaker comes to an abrupt halt, seemingly overcome
by passion (fear, excitement, etc.) or modesty.
Apostrophe:
a sudden turn from the general audience to address a specific group or person or
personified abstraction absent or present.
*For
Brutus, as you know, was Caesar's angel. Judge, O you gods, how dearly Caesar
loved him. Shakespeare, Julius Caesar
Archaism:
use of an older or obsolete form.
*Pipit
sate upright in her chair Some distance from where I was sitting; T. S. Eliot,
"A Cooking Egg"
Assertion:
A statement of belief.
Assonance:
repetition of the same vowel sound in words close to each other.
*Thy
kingdom come, thy will be done.
Asyndeton:
lack of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, or words.
*We
shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardships, support any friend,
oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty. J. F. Kennedy,
Inaugural
*But,
in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow
this ground.
Audience:
The intended readers of a piece of writing. Knowledge of the audience’s needs
and expectations helps a writer shape the writing so that it is clear.,
interesting, and convincing.
Authority:
an expert in a particular field. A reliable or respectable source of information
used to support an argument.
Backing:
the assurance upon which an assumption or warrant is based.
Bandwagon:
the tactic of inviting the audience to accept an assertion because everybody
else does.
Brachylogy:
a general term for abbreviated or condensed expression, of which asyndeton and
zeugma are types. Ellipse is often used synonymously. The suppressed word or
phrase can usually be supplied easily from the surrounding context.
Cacophony:
harsh joining of sounds.
*We
want no parlay with you and your grisly gang who work your wicked will. W.
Churchill
Catachresis:
a harsh metaphor involving the use of a word beyond its strict sphere.
*I
listen vainly, but with thirsty ear. MacArthur, Farewell Address
Cause-and-effect
analysis:
the explanation of why something happened or what its consequences were or will
be.
Chiasmus:
two corresponding pairs arranged not in parallels (a-b-a-b) but in inverted
order (a-b-b-a); from shape of the Greek letter chi (X).
*Those
gallant men will remain often in my thoughts and in my prayers always. MacArthur
Claim:
what the writer of the argument is trying to prove; the conclusion of an
argument. Claims are supported with reasons.
Cliché:
a worn-out or stale expression that dulls the writing.
Climax:
arrangement of words, phrases, or clauses in an order of ascending power. Often
the last emphatic word in one phrase or clause is repeated as the first emphatic
word of the next.
*One
equal temper of heroic hearts, Made weak by time and fate, but strong in will To
strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield. Tennyson, Ulysses
Colloquial
language:
words or expressions from everyday speech. Colloquial language can enliven
informal writing but is generally inappropriate in formal academic or business
writing.
Comparison
and contrast:
the identification of similarities (comparison) and differences (contrast)
between two or more subjects.
Concession:
in an argument, an acknowledgment of the merits of the opposition’s position.
Concrete
language:
words that refer to objects persons, places, or conditions that can be perceived
with the senses. Opposite of abstract language.
Connotation:
an association called upon by a word that is beyond its dictionary definition.
Credibility:
the reliability or trustworthiness of the writer or sources; ethos. The
audience’s belief in such.
Data:
factual information used to support one’s reasoning or argument.
Definition:
the clarification or explanation of the meaning of a word or phrase. Specifying
the characteristics of something to establish what it is or is not.
Denotation:
the dictionary definition or literal meaning of a word or phrase.
Diction:
the choice and use of words.
Enthymeme:
an incomplete logical structure that depends, for its completeness, on one or
more unstated assumptions (values, beliefs, principles) that serve as the
starting point of the argument.
Ethical
appeal:
an attempt to engage and persuade the audience by presenting the writer as a
competent, sincere, and fair person.
Evidence:
the facts, statistics, examples, expert opinions, personal testimony, and other
information used to support a claim or a thesis.
Euphemism:
substitution of an agreeable or at least non-offensive expression for one whose
plainer meaning might be harsh or unpleasant.
Sleeping
together = having sex
Passed away = died
Chemical dependant = dope head
She has loose morals = she’s a slut
Fact:
something that is believed to have objective reality; a piece of information
that is regarded as verifiable.
Factual
evidence:
supporting data that an audience considers objectively verifiable.
Fallacy:
an error in reasoning, a false argument. These are not necessarily to be avoided
at all costs; however, if used they must be used very wisely and carefully. One
fallacy can destroy an entire argument if it is used improperly. The following
is a list of various fallacies and their definitions.
Ad
Hominem:
From the Latin meaning "against the man"—that is, making an attack
on the person rather than on the person’s argument or particular issue.
Ad misericordiam:
An argument that is an appeal to the emotions of the audience.
Begging
the question:
in an argument, making an assumption that what’s being argued has already been
proven or confirmed.
Circular
reasoning:
reasoning where the conclusion is hidden in the premise of the argument.
Double
Standard:
comparing two or more similar things or situations by a different sets of
standards. Example: "Well, it’s OK for him, but if she tries it I’ll
punish her."
Equivocation:
using
words that have at least two different definitions to support or refute an
issue. Using ambiguous words is also a form of equivocation.
False
analogy:
a fallacy of comparing two things that are not sufficiently alike to be
compared. Such comparison concentrates one a singular similarity while ignoring
all differences.
False
dilemma:
reducing a complex problem into an either/or choice. This is a fallacy when
there is more than two choices.
Hasty
generalization:
an assertion or conclusion drawn on insufficient evidence; jumping to
conclusions.
Non
sequitur:
from the Latin for "it does not follow." A fallacy of claiming a
conclusion that does not follow logically from the premise.
Oversimplification:
attempts to obscure or deny the complex issues of a claim, syllogism, or
enthymeme.
Post
Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc:
(cause and effect, false cause) Most readily identified as the "If...,
then..." fallacy. Assumes that event A causes event B or some undesired
result. Example: "If we can put a man on the moon, then we should be able
to cure AIDS."
Red
Herring: (sometimes
called Trojan Horse) a decoy argument; one that ignores the real issue while
bringing up totally irrelevant issues. Example: "How can you justify
spending money to fight crime in
Self
Contradiction:
giving two premises that when used together cannot be true. Example: If you die
while you’re asleep, you won’t know about it until the next morning when you
wake up.
Slanted
language:
(also called stacking the deck) evidence, words, or expressions whose
connotations favor a particular bias of the arguer and which distort the
opposition.
Slippery
Slope:
"one thing leads to another" fallacy, also called the "domino
effect." This uses a false or unproven thesis, one without foundation.
Example: "If we do this, then that will happen, then something else, and
then other things; where will it end?"
Stacking
the deck:
(also known as slanting) giving evidence, words, or expressions supporting a
premise while disregarding or withholding contrary evidence.
Stereotyping:
a form of hasty generalization, assuming that all members of a group are the
same; this can be racist in nature or simply sweeping generalizations. Example:
"All red heads have a fiery temper."
Strawman
(strawperson): this fallacy creates its own issues and then attacks or refutes
these rather than addressing the issue of the core argument.
Freewriting:
a technique for generating ideas. It usually takes place during a fixed amount
of time.
Generalization:
an assertion inferred from evidence.
Grounds:
the minor premise supporting evidence.
Hendiadys:
use of two words connected by a conjunction, instead of subordinating one to the
other, to express a single complex idea.
*It
sure is nice and cool today! (for "pleasantly cool")
*I
love the Lord, because he hath heard my voice and my supplications. Psalms 116
Hypallage:
("exchanging") transferred epithet; grammatical agreement of a word
with another word which it does not logically qualify. More common in poetry.
Hyperbaton:
separation of words which belong together, often to emphasize the first of the
separated words or to create a certain image.
Hyperbole:
exaggeration for emphasis or for rhetorical effect.
*My
vegetable love should grow
Vaster
than empires, and more slow; An hundred years should got to praise Thine eyes
and on thine forehead gaze; Two hundred to adore each breast, But thirty
thousand to the rest. Andrew Marvell, "To His Coy Mistress"
Hysteron
Proteron
("later-earlier"): inversion of the natural sequence of events, often
meant to stress the event which, though later in time, is considered the more
important.
*Put
on your shoes and socks!
Irony:
expression of something which is contrary to the intended meaning; the words say
one thing but mean another.
Litotes:
understatement, for intensification, by denying the contrary of the thing being
affirmed. (Sometimes used synonymously with meiosis.)
*A
few unannounced quizzes are not inconceivable.
*War
is not healthy for children and other living things.
*One
nuclear bomb can ruin your whole day. (meiosis)
Metaphor:
implied comparison achieved through a figurative use of words; the word is used
not in its literal sense, but in one analogous to it.
*Life's
but a walking shadow; a poor player, That struts and frets his hour upon the
stage. Shakespeare, Macbeth
*.
. . while he learned the language (that meager and fragile thread . . . by which
the little surface corners and edges of men's secret and solitary lives may be
joined for an instant now and then before sinking back into the darkness. . . )
Faulkner, Absalom, Absalom!
*From
Stettin in the Baltic to
Metonymy:
substitution of one word for another which it suggests.
*He
is a man of the cloth.
*The
pen is mightier than the sword.
*By
the sweat of thy brow thou shalt eat thy bread.
Narration:
the telling of a story; the recounting of a sequence of events, usually in the
order of their occurrence.
Neologism:
a new word, a word coined recently thus not established in use. A new use for an
old word.
Occam’s
Razor
- the theory holding that all things being equal the simplest answer is probably
the best and most correct. Spock (Star Trek) used a version of Occam’s Razor
in Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country, "If you eliminate the
impossible, whatever remains—however improbable—must be the truth."
Onomatopoeia:
use of words to imitate natural sounds; accommodation of sound to sense.
Opinion:
a conclusion based on facts or judgements; an arguable, potentially changeable
assertion. Assertions of opinion form the backbone of an argument.
Oxymoron:
apparent paradox achieved by the juxtaposition of words which seem to contradict
one another.
*I
must be cruel only to be kind. Shakespeare, Hamlet
Paradox:
an assertion seemingly opposed to common sense, but that may have some truth in
it.
*What
a pity that youth must be wasted on the young. George Bernard Shaw
Paraprosdokian:
surprise or unexpected ending of a phrase or series.
*He
was at his best when the going was good. Alistair Cooke on the Duke of
*There
but for the grace of God -- goes God. Churchill
Paronomasia:
use of similar sounding words; often etymological word-play.
*...culled
cash, or cold cash, and then it turned into a gold cache. E.L. Doctorow, Billy
Bathgate
*Thou
art Peter (Greek petros), and upon this rock (Greek
*The
dying Mercutio: Ask for me tomorrow and you shall find me a grave man.
Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet
Personification:
attribution of personality to an impersonal thing.
*
Pleonasm:
use of superfluous or redundant words, often enriching the thought.
*No
one, rich or poor, will be excepted.
*Ears
pierced while you wait!
*I
have seen no stranger sight since I was born.
Polysyndeton:
the repetition of conjunctions in a series of coordinate words, phrases, or
clauses.
*I
said, "Who killed him?" and he said, "I don't know who killed him
but he's dead all right," and it was dark and there was water standing in
the street and no lights and windows broke and boats all up in the town and
trees blown down and everything all blown and I got a skiff and went out and
found my boat where I had her inside Mango Bay and she was all right only she
was full of water. Hemingway, After the Storm
Praeteritio
(=paraleipsis): pretended omission for rhetorical effect.
*That
part of our history detailing the military achievements which gave us our
several possessions ... is a theme too familiar to my listeners for me to dilate
on, and I shall therefore pass it by. Thucydides, "Funeral Oration"
*Let
us make no judgment on the events of Chappaquiddick, since the facts are not yet
all in. A political opponent of Senator Edward Kennedy
Pre-empting:
anticipating the opposition’s argument and attempting to invalidate it before
it is delivered.
Process
analysis:
a step-by-step explanation of how something works or how something is done.
Prolepsis:
the anticipation, in adjectives or nouns, of the result of the action of a verb;
also, the positioning of a relative clause before its antecedent.
*Consider
the lilies of the field how they grow.
Proposition:
the claim or the point to be discussed or proven in an argument.
Purpose:
what the writer hopes to accomplish is a piece of writing. The chief reason for
communicating something about a topic to one’s audience.
Qualifier:
a restriction placed on the claim to indicate that it may not always be true as
so stated.
Racist
language:
slurs or derogatory terms that discriminate against or denigrate members of
certain races or ethnicity.
Reason:
a statement that explains or justifies the claim.
Rebuttal:
exception to a claim.
Refutation:
an attack on an opposing point of view in order to lessen its credibility or to
invalidate it.
Rhetoric:
the strategic use of language.
Rhetorical
question:
a question asked for effect, with no answer expected.
Sexist
language:
language expressing narrow ideas about men’s and women’s roles, positions,
capabilities, or values.
Simile:
an explicit comparison between two things using 'like' or 'as'.
*My
love is as a fever, longing still For that which longer nurseth the disease,
Shakespeare, Sonnet CXLVII
*Reason
is to faith as the eye to the telescope. D. Hume [?]
*Let
us go then, you and I, While the evening is spread out against the sky, Like a
patient etherized upon a table... T.S. Eliot, The Love Song of J. Alfred
Prufrock
Slang:
expressions used by members of a group to create bonds and sometimes exclude
others. Most slang is too vague, short-lived, and narrowly understood to be
included in anything but informal writing.
Statistics:
information that is expressed in numerical form; quantitative data.
Syllepsis:
use of a word with two others, with each of which it is understood differently.
*We
must all hang together or assuredly we will all hang separately. Benjamin
Franklin
Syllogism:
a form of deductive reasoning in which two premises (one major, one minor)
stating generalizations or assumptions together lead to a conclusion.
Synchysis:
interlocked word order.
Synesis
(constructio ad sensum): the agreement of words according to logic, and not by
the grammatical form; a kind of anacoluthon.
*For
the wages of sin is death. Romans 6
*Then
Philip went down to the city of
Synecdoche:
understanding one thing with another; the use of a part for the whole, or the
whole for the part. (A form of metonymy.)
*I
should have been a pair of ragged claws Scuttling across the floors of silent
seas. T. S. Eliot, "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock"
*The
Tautology:
repetition of an idea in a different word, phrase, or sentence.
*With
malice toward none, with charity for all.
Thesis:
the central controlling idea of an essay to which all assertions and details
relate.
Thesis
sentence:
the sentence that asserts the central controlling idea of an essay. It conveys
the writer’s purpose and attitude and perhaps previews the essay’s
organization.
Transitions:
words or phrases such as thus or similarly or by comparison
that link sentences and paragraphs for the sake of enhancing coherence.
Twisted
cliché:
a cliché where one or more of the words are changed, either in spelling or
replaced by a new word, but the basic concept of the cliché is still
recognizable.
Unity:
the quality of an effective essay or paragraph in which all parts relate to the
central idea and to each other.
Values:
principles or ideas that are used as standards for determining the worth of
something—that is, good or bad, ugly or beautiful, useful or worthless, right
or wrong.
Warrant:
an assumption or general principle that establishes a connection between the
evidence and the claim.
Zeugma:
two different words linked to a verb or an adjective which is strictly
appropriate to only one of them.
*Nor Mars his sword, nor war's quick fire shall burn The living record of your memory.